Benefits of Coffee Essay

How much coffee have you consumed already this morning? One cup? Or maybe even two? Like most college students I enjoy my cup of Joe in the morning! Coffee is one of the greatest sources of antioxidants in the global diet. Consuming large amounts is not advised, but having reasonable amounts everyday can be very beneficial to your body. Today, I would like to inform you about some of the benefits of drinking coffee. 1. Lower Chances of Death. a. Let’s face it we are all going to die. b. Appears to lengthen time for people with heart disease and diabetes c. Kristen Kirkpatrick said that a study in 2012 showed that three or more cups of coffee a day lowers the risk of death regardless of whether participants drank caffeinated or decaffeinated coffee. 2. Makes your reproductive system happy. d. Men would you like a drink that could lower your chances for prostate cancer? And ladies wouldn’t you like to lower your risk for endometrial cancer? e. Kirkpatrick also says that a 2011 study found that men consuming at least six or more cups a day reduced their risk of prostate cancer by 20 percent! Another study published in the Journal Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention found that women who drank more than four cups of coffee a day had a 25 percent lower risk of endometrial cancer. 3. Lower risks of Type 2 diabetes. f. A 2012 study found that a compound in coffee can actually help block a substance in the body called human islet amyloid polypeptide that may play a role in the development of diabetes. Further studies have demonstrated that caffeinated coffee consumption is linked to decreased diabetes risk as well. 4. Protects your brain. g. When you wake up to the smell of coffee in the morning do you usually smile? h. Coffee drinkers are less likely to develop dementia and Alzheimer’s later in life according to a study done in 2009 i. The smell of coffee can help reduce stress that could be associated with loss of sleep 5. Good for skin. j. Drinking coffee may help you to ward off basal cell carcinoma So, the next time you are wondering whether you should have that second cup of coffee to perk you up, relax. At least now you know how it could help you!

Rayon Fibre

Cuprammonium Rayon threads from Filter Paper AAKASH NARAYAN XII-B DON BOSCO SCHOOL i. n. d. e. x 1. Objective 2. Certificate 3. Acknowledgement 4. Apparatus 5. Chemicals 6. Summary 7. Introduction 8. Procedure 9. Precautions 10. Bibliography o. b. j. e. c. t. i. v. e To make Cuprammonium Rayon Threads From Filter Paper c. e. r. t. i. f. i. c. a. t. eThis is to certify that   Aakash Narayan,   student of Class XII B,  Don Bosco School ,Alaknanda   has completed the project titled ‘Cuprammonium Rayon Threads from Filter Paper’ during the academic year 2010-2011, towards partial fulfilment of credit for the chemistry practical evaluation of CBSE Board, and submitted satisfactory report, as compiled in the following pages, under my supervision. This project is absolutely genuine and does not indulge in plagiarism of any kind.The references taken in making this project have been declared at the end of this report. Ms. Cecilia Manichan Don Bosco School, Alaknanda a. c. k. n. o. w. l. e. d. g. e. m. e. n. t â€Å"There are times when silence speaks so much more loudly than words  of  praise to only as good as belittle a person, whose words do not express, but only put a veneer over true feelings, which are  of  gratitude at this point  of  time†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †Ã¢â‚¬  I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my chemistry teacher   Ms. Cecilia Manichan ,for her vital support, guidance and encouragement without which this project would not have come-forth.I would also like to express my gratitude to the staff of the Department of Chemistry at  Don Bosco School for their support during the making of this project. I would also like to thank my partner ,my friend Gaurab Das Gupta helping me to perform the project. Aakash Narayan XII B, Don Bosco School a. p. p. a. r. a. t. u. s 1) Conical flask (250 ml) 2) Funnel 3) Glass rod 4) Beaker (250 ml) 5) Water bath 6) Whatman Filt er paper [pic] c. h. e. m. i. c. a. l. s 1) Copper Sulphate(CuSO4 ) 2) Caustic Soda Solution(NAOH) 3) Liquor ammonia solution ) Dilute Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4) 5) Whatman Paper 6) Distilled water (H2O) s. u. m. m. a. r. y Rayon is a cellulose-based synthetic fiber . it was originally called ‘artificial silk’ or ‘wood silk’, because, it got Developed in an attempt to chemically produce silk. Rayon is a regenerated fiber. cellulose is converted to a liquid compound and then back to cellulose in the form of fiber. cuprammonium rayon is obtained by dissolving cellulose in ammoniacal copper sulphate solution. The rayon fibers have special characteristics: They are highly absorbent, ?Soft and comfortable, ? Easy to dye & ? Drape well. i. n. t. r. o. d. u. c. t. i. o. n Cellulose is nature’s own giant molecule. It is the fibrous material that every plant makes by baking glucose molecules in long chains, from seaweed to the sequoia; the chains are bound togeth er in the fibers that give plants their shape and strength. Wood is the main source of cellulose. it contains 40% to 50% cellulose. the substance must be extracted by ‘pulping’. The logs are flaked, and then simmered in chemicals that dissolve the tarry lignin, resins and minerals.The remaining pulp, about 93% cellulose, is dried and rolled into sheets-raw material for paper, rayon and other products. It can be obtained in two ways: 1. Viscose Process: Cellulose is soaked in 30% caustic soda solution for about 3 hrs. The alkali solution is removed and the product is treated with carbon di-sulphide (CS2). This gives cellulose xanthate, which is dissolved in caustic soda (NaOH) solution to give viscous solution. This is filtered and forced through a spinneret into a dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4) solution, both of which harden the gum-like thread into rayon fibers.The process of making viscose was discovered by C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan in 1891. 2. Cuprammonium Rayon: Cu prammonium rayon is obtained by dissolving pieces of filter paper in a deep blue solution containing tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. The latter is obtained from a solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4). To it, ammonia solution (NH4OH) is added to precipitate cupric hydroxide (Cu(OH)2), which is then dissolved in excess of ammonia (NH3. ) Reactions: CuSO4 + 2NH4OH > Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 (Pale Blue Precipitate)Cu(OH) 2 + 4NH4OH > [Cu(NH3) 4](OH) 2 + 4H2O [Cu(NH3) 4](OH) 2 + pieces of filter paper left for 10-15 days give a viscous solution called ‘VISCOSE’. p. r. o. c. e. d. u. r. e I. Preparation of Schweitzer’s Solution: 1) Weigh 20g of CuSO4. 5H20. [pic] 2) Transfer this to a beaker having 100ml distilled water and add 15ml of dilute H2SO4 to prevent hydrolysis of CuSO4. [pic] 3) Stir it with a glass rod till a clear solution is obtained. Add 11ml of liquor ammonia drop by drop with slow stirring. The precipitate of cupric hydroxide is separated out. [pic] ) Filter t he solution containing cupric hydroxide through a funnel with filter paper. [pic] [pic] 5) Wash the precipitate of cupric hydroxide with water until the filtrate fails to give a positive test for sulphate ions with barium chloride solution. [pic] [pic] 6) Transfer the precipitate to a beaker that contains 50ml of liquor ammonia or wash it down the funnel. The precipitate when dissolved in liquor ammonia gives a deep blue solution of tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide. This is known as SCHWEITZER’S SOLUTION. [pic] II. Preparation of Cellulose material ) After weighing 2g of filter paper divide it into very fine pieces and then transfer these pieces to the tetra-ammine cupric hydroxide solution in the beaker. [pic] [pic] 2) Seal the flask and keep for 10 to 15 days, during this period the filter paper is dissolved completely. iii. Formation of Rayon Thread 1) Take 50ml of distilled water in a glass container. To this add 20ml of conc. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) drop by drop. Cool the so lution under tap water. In a big glass container pour some of the solution. 2) Fill the syringe with cellulose solution prepared before. [pic] ) Place the big glass container containing H2SO4 solution produced before in ice (the reaction being spontaneous results in excess release of energy in the form of heat which makes the fibers weak and breaks them). [pic] [pic] 4) Immerse the tip of the syringe in the solution and press gently. Notice the fibers getting formed in the acid bath. Continue to move your hand and keep pressing the syringe to extrude more fibers into the bath. 5) Leave the fibers in solution till they decolorize and become strong enough. [pic] [pic] [pic] 6) Filter and wash with distilled water. . r. e. c. a. u. t. i. o. n. s 1) Addition of excess NH3 should be avoided. 2) Before taking the viscose in the syringe make sure that it does not contain any particles of paper, otherwise, it would clog the needle of the syringe. 3) Addition of NH3 should be done in a fume cupboard and with extreme care. The fumes if inhaled may cause giddiness. 4) Use a thick needle otherwise the fibers won’t come out. b. i. b. l. i. o. g. r. a. p. h. y I. Google. com II. Ask. com III. Wikipedia. com IV. Comprehensive  Laboratory Manual in chemistry XII [pic][pic]

Accounting Environment Essay

Learning Outcomes At the end of this chapter the students should be able to: ?Explain the meaning and purpose of accounting ?Describe the role of accounting as a information system ? Describe why accounting is considered as the language of business ? Assess the impact of external environmental factors on accounting Introduction Accounting has evolved and emerged as most other fields of human activity in response to the social and economic needs of society. Today accounting is moving away from its traditional procedural base, encompassing record keeping and related activities towards the adoption of a role which emphasizes its social importance. In this context, this introductory chapter of the course manual deals with the definition of accounting, use of accounting as an information system and the language of business, users of accounting information and the impact of external environment on accounting. Definition of Accounting The question what is meant by accounting has not been answered precisely. Instead there are many definitions on accounting. Some of these definitions are considered in this section to identify the purpose and functions of accounting. The Committee on Terminology of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) formulated the following definition on accounting in 1941. Accounting is the art of recording, classifying and summarizing in a significant manner and in terms of money, transactions and events which are, in part at least, of a financial character, and interpreting the results thereof. This definition of AICPA, USA has been quoted for many years. However, it defines accounting only from the point of view of what it does. Hence, it does not clearly establish the purpose of accounting. On the other hand, the following definition provided by the American Accounting Association (AAA) in 1961 emphasizes the broader perspective of accounting. This definition focuses on accounting as an aid to decision-making. Accounting is the process of identifying, measuring and communicating economic information to permit informed judgements and decisions by users of the information. In 1970, AICPA of USA provided the following definition on accounting with reference to the concept of information. The term ‘quantitative information’ used in this definition is wider in scope than financial or economic information used in previous definitions. Accounting is a service activity. Its function is to provide quantitative information primarily financial in nature about economic activities that is intended to be useful in making economic decisions. Both definitions of AAA and AICPA show that accounting is considered not merely with record keeping. Instead it involves with a whole range of activities. These two definitions emphasize on using accounting information for decision making purposes. Both internal parties of an organization (e. g. managers) and outside parties (e. g. owners, creditors, government) use accounting information in making decisions that affect the organization. Although these definitions have looked at accounting from different perspectives, they have been able to set the boundary of accounting. They have established the nature of accounting and the purpose for which it is used. Hence, based on these definitions, it can be said that accounting is primarily concerned with the provision of information to various stakeholders of an organization to be used in decision making. Accounting as an Information System AAA definition on accounting implies two phases: (1) identifying and measuring economic information and (2) communicating economic information to users (stakeholders of an organisation) for decision making purposes. These two phases show that accounting acts as an information system in an organisation. The accounting process involves recoding and processing of transactions and events of an entity that had occurred during a specific period of time, and communicating the information relevant to processed transactions and events to aid decision-making of various users of accounting information. As an information system, accounting links an information source or transmitter (preparer/s of information), a channel of communication (financial and other statements/reports) and a set of receivers (users of information/stakeholders of an organization). The Figure 1 shows how accounting functions as an information system in business and economic decisions. In the accounting system, transactions and events are the input and the statements of reports given to decision-makers are the output. Figure 1 Accounting as an Information System in Business and Economic Decisions Data Source: Lal, J. (2005), Corporate Financial Reporting: Theory and Practice, second edition, Taxmann Allied Services (Pvt) Ltd, New Delhi. Accounting as the Language of Business Accounting is often called the language of business because it is considered as the main mean of communicating information about a business. This reference to accounting as the language of business is observed by Ijiri (1975) as follows: As the language of business, accounting has many things in common with other languages. The various business activities of a firm are reported in accounting statements using accounting language, just as reported news events are reported in newspapers, in the English Language. To express an event in accounting or in English we must follow certain rules. Without following certain rules diligently, not only does one run the risk of being misunderstood but also risks a penalty for misinterpretation, lying or perjury. Comparability of statements is essential to the effective functioning of a language whether it is in English or in Accounting. At the same time, language has to be flexible to adapt to a changing environment. A language broadly has two components: symbols and rules. In accounting too, these two components are available. In accounting, numerals and words, and debits and credits are accepted symbols and they are unique to the accounting discipline. The rules in accounting refer to the general set of procedures followed in creating financial information for an entity. Anthony and Reece (1991) draw a parallel between accounting and language as follows. Accounting resembles a language in that some of its rules are definite whereas others are not. Accountants differ as to how a given event should be reported, just as grammarians differ as to many matters of sentence structure, punctuation and choice of words. Nevertheless, just as many practices are clearly poor English (language), many practices are definitely poor accounting. Languages evolve and change in response to the changing needs of society, and so does accounting. Users of Accounting Information There is an array of users (or stakeholders) who make use of accounting information for decision making. These user groups include present and otential investors, managers, employees, lenders, suppliers, customers, analysts, media, government, and the general public. However, with the broadening of the accountability of organizations, they are accountable to a large group of stakeholders, some of them not clearly known or identified by the organizations. These users can be broadly categorized as internal and external users of accounting information. The term ‘internal u sers’ refers to parties within an organization that make decisions directly affecting its internal operations and this category usually includes managers and employees of an entity. All other users can be grouped under the term ‘external users’, which refer to parties outside the organization that make decisions concerning their relationship to the organization. These two major classifications of users have led to a distinction between two main areas of accounting: financial accounting and management accounting. The primary concern of financial accounting is to provide information to external user groups. On the other hand, the management accounting is primarily concerned with the provision of information to internal user groups. These users have diverse information needs. However, among these diverse needs too, there are common information needs. The financial statements of an entity that provide information about its financial performance, financial position, and changes in financial position address these information needs common to all users. As these financial statements are prepared to meet the information needs of a cross-section of users, they are known as common-purpose (general-purpose) financial statements. However, these financial statements do not provide all the information that users need to make decisions since they largely portray the financial effects of past transactions and events. The responsibility to prepare and present financial statements lies with the management of an entity. As general-purpose financial statements meet the information needs of users who are unable to command the preparation of financial reports of an entity, the government has imposed regulations to govern these financial statements. These regulations are intended to protect the public interest. External Environmental Factors influencing Accounting The pace and change in external environmental factors have a profound influence on business organizations and the way in which they are managed. These factors could be social, economic, political, legal or technological. Accounting, as the language of business and its information system is also affected by these changes. The changing conditions in the external environment have confronted accounting with a number of challenges that should be recognized, accepted and addressed to ensure its relevance and usefulness. This has made accounting to change and grow over the years to meet social requirements and to guide business and industry requirements. Thus, understanding accounting requires understanding the environment within which accounting operates and which it is intended to reflect. The society has been subjected to political, social, economic and technological change. These changes have resulted in globalization, the rise of informed and selective customers, the development of information technology and etc. These changes in the external environment factors are reflected in business organizations through the shift in business types and cost profiles, increase in strategic decision making and greater emphasis on survival. The changing conditions within business organizations lead accounting to change in order to meet the new requirements resulted from these changes. The areas requiring changes in accounting include selection of data, information processing, dissemination of information, role of accounting standards, assumptions and perspectives of accounting, and uses and impact of accounting information. Thus, today’s rapidly changing environment is forcing accounting to reassess its role and function both within the organization and society. Although challenges imposed by different environmental factors on accounting could be discussed separately, they should be viewed from a holistic perspective. This is because the power of potential improvement lies in the cohesion of the changes rather than in individual items. The changing conditions in the business environment will shape the future for accounting. The environment within which business and accounting function operate has become increasing complex. One of its characteristic features is that many social, economic, political, legal and technological influences that create continual change in that environment and these in turn impact on accounting and its product, accounting information. However, it is sometimes criticized that accounting has not been able to keep pace with this changing conditions in the external environment. Summary This chapter provides an overview of accounting based on its nature and purpose, users of accounting information and impact of external environment on accounting. The primary objective of accounting is to provide information that can be used by the stakeholders of an organization (users of accounting information) in making their decisions. These decisions could have a bearing on the resource allocation process in the country and thereby on the economic growth and development of the country. However, the role and functions of accounting cannot be considered in isolation from the social-political-economic context within which it is operating. The rapidly changing external environment is posing many challenges to accounting and it needs to adapt to these changing conditions. This requires a continual process of renewal and improvement in accounting. References American Accounting Association (1966), A Statement of Basic Accounting Theory, AAA. American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (1941), Review and Resume, Accounting Terminology Bulletin, No. . American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) (1970), Basic Concepts and Accounting Principles underlying Financial Statements of Business Enterprises, Accounting Principles Board Statement No. 4, Anthony, R. N. and Reece, J. S. (1991), Accounting Principles, Richard D Irwin. Ijiri, Y. (1975), Theory of Accounting Measurement, Research Report, No. 10, AAA. Lal, J. (2005), Corporate Financial Report ing: Theory and Practice, second edition, Taxmann Allied Services (Pvt) Ltd, New Delhi.

Strategic Account for Decision Making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strategic Account for Decision Making - Essay Example These are assessed in order. It is evident that BPC is performing better in both. The margins indicate that FF(Cardiff) has still some more opportunities to cut down costs and increase the margin by about 2%. This is also substantiated by the Expenses/Sales ratio (90% to 92%). However, FF(Cardiff) uses about  £41 ( £319 -  £278) more to generate  £1000 sales, i.e., the asset turnover rate is lesser in FF(Cardiff). This is a significant difference and so, FF(Cardiff) has to take some action to optimize the use of assets. These figures indicate that FF(Cardiff) does not utilize both fixed and current assets to the optimum extent. The ratios indicate that there is a major problem with fixed assets, i.e., BPF utilizes about  £254 of fixed assets to generate sales of  £1000 whereas FF(Cardiff) takes about  £287 worth of fixed assets to generate  £1000 sales. This difference ( £33) indicates that the processes used by FF(Cardiff) are not efficient. The current assets too have a major impact on sales (41.7x to 33x). In order to estimate the extent to which each current asset contributes to the issue, the next three ratios (7, 8 and 9) are compared with those of the best performing club (BPC). The stock turnover period indicates that FF(Cardiff) is more efficient in moving the stock. However, FF(Cardiff) can improvise on debt collection period, since it takes 3.1 days for FF(Cardiff) to collect cash whereas BPF does it in 2.4 days. These figures indicate that FF(Cardiff) takes about (365/59) 6 days to convert cash in the bank to sales, whereas BPF takes about roughly (365/83.3) 4 days to convert cash to sales. This is a significant difference (2 days), but it is not of great importance. However, FF(Cardiff) can focus on reducing the cash in the bank and convert them to sales at a faster rate, as cash kept idle does not reap any profits. As far as the liquidity ratios are concerned, there is no much difference in the current ratios (1.8:1 and 1.7:1).     

Effects on environment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Effects on environment - Research Paper Example Pollution is contamination of the natural environment and which brings about environmental degradation. Air pollution caused by industrial emission of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur and other harmful gases leads to depletion of the ozone layer which acts as a shield to protect the earth from excessive and harmful sun rays. Water pollution on the other hand which may be caused by harmful farming, mining and even industrial wastes destroy the environment by exposing it to toxic chemicals and hence killing animals and plants which depend on that water. It also leads to destruction of the soil hence rendering the area inhabitable. The excessive population growth that has been witnessed over the last century has also had its effects on the environment. The major effects include deforestation, depletion of natural resources and extinction of species of both plants and animals. As the population continues to expand and with limited land for settlement, the only alternative left is to start clearing forests and even draining swamps in order to build settlement areas. This leads to climate changes and environmental degradation. The minority species are also displaced in a â€Å"battle for the fittest† as explained by Darwin. Species like that of dinosaur which occupy large areas are killed to clear space to accommodate the excess population. Population growth also leads to increased construction which not only causes pollution which as explained earlier degrades the environment but also leads to deforestation and extraction of earth’s important minerals in the process of construction. Other environmental influencers do not however entirely bring about negative effects on the environment. Some farming techniques for example like animal farming enriches the environment by ensuring provision of manure and hence minerals. Practicing biological methods of farming where no chemicals are used also prevents degrading

Metaphysical Concepts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Metaphysical Concepts - Essay Example As seen in the research conducted by Dodds, potency simply refers to a kind of non-existence displayed by individuals2. This explains that potency is a form of an imperfect act. Potency has also been described as a force that is inhibited in action3. Individuals can, therefore, display potency in a way that displays their restrained force. In line with this thought, it is arguable that potency is a form of reality that exits between absolute nothing and the being in existence. Aristotle explains that potency exists but can be manipulated, determined and even transformed into nothing4,5,6 .This explains that from nothing, nothing can also result. Since potency is determinable, it can be indicated to be in the process of transformation. Potency can then be indicated to an imperfect actuality that is in motion and is in the process of becoming. This thought advances that of St. Thomas who differentiated the concept of passive and active potency. Passive potency as St. Thomas writes is not a mere possibility while active potency is infinite and one that is an active force. Active potency is also one that is only produced by Supreme Beings7. On the other hand, act refers to the capacity to receive some form of perfection. It is of essence to note that act is constrained by potency that is the recipient of act. Nonetheless act can either be pure and unlimited. This depends on the manner in which the act is composed by potency. Aristotle explains that act can also determines potency and can even actualize potency8. St. Thomas is of the opinion that act is a form of perfection that can only be limited by perfection9. Simply put, the limitations of act can also emanate from within or by the forces that are produces the act. Nonetheless, it is of great importance to question whether if act can be limited by other forces or solely that produces act10. In addition, act is greatly by the subject in

The Major Difference Between Fittings and Fixture in Land Law Coursework - 3

The Major Difference Between Fittings and Fixture in Land Law - Coursework Example These tests highlight not only the importance of distinguishing between fixtures and fittings but the major differences between the two. Although the distinctions are not always clear, a common trend can be identified: the significance of the item in terms whether or not it has become so attached to the land, that it should not be regarded as anything other than a part of the land. This paper examines the major differences between fixtures and fittings by reference to case law. The early case of Holland v Hodgson is a good place to start as it established two test for distinguishing between fixtures and fittings. In this case, the question was whether or not looms that had been installed at a factory could be regarded as part and parcel of the factory. Blackburn J stated that in order to determine whether or not an item was a fixture or a fitting it was necessary to consider the extent of the annexation and its purpose. In this regard, an item that was annexed to the land by virtue o f its own weight would not be considered a fixture unless there was an intention that the item would form part and parcel of the land.5 What can be gleaned from this ruling is that it is first necessary to look at the item and to determine whether or not it is actually fixed to the property and not merely supported by its own weight. If it is fixed, it is a fixture and will likely be considered part and parcel of the land. However, if the item is merely supported by its own weight, then the question will remain whether or not the item was intended to be a part of the land. Buckland J offered some guidance by referencing the case of a stone wall. For instance, if stones were merely plied upon the land there is an assumption that those stones were not intended to form a part of the land.

Garbology in Marketing Strategies Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Garbology in Marketing Strategies - Term Paper Example Neuromarketing refers to the application of technology to determine the consumer’s brain activity so as to assist in developing products and communications (Zurawicki 211). The technique is founded on the idea that consumer purchasing behavior is formed in split seconds. The technique also holds that buying decisions are made within the brain’s subconscious and emotional part. The technique is also based on the premise that that by being able to clearly understand what consumers like, do not like, or fear as shown by the reactions of the brain to brand stimuli, marketers can be able to brand their products and communicate with them in a manner that best meets the market needs, by influencing consumers to buy the products. All these fundamentals are based on neuromarketing is based on neuroscience, which involves the study of how the brain enables human to think, perceive, and feel emotions, make decisions and communicate (Guardian News and Media Limited Par. 3). The tec hniques applied are based on functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), psychophysics, electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) as noted by Moore and Pareek (195). Neuromarketing research is said to have triggered significant amount of interest among many marketers and companies. Proponents of the technology argue that it could be the next big thing in the marketplace (Guardian News and Media Limited par 6). In this regard, they argue that by using science to locate the ‘buy buttons’ of consumers, it would be easy for marketers to open the black box of the consumer’s mind. Research reveals that neuromarketing is good for application in different areas especially in predicting behaviors, understanding the ads that the majority of consumers can easily remember. It can also be applied in choosing the media formats that can easily be understood by consumers. Other areas of application according to Moore and Pareek are in understanding why most consumers differ from what they inform the focus group (196).

Teaching English to new arrival immigrants is problematic Research Paper - 1

Teaching English to new arrival immigrants is problematic - Research Paper Example One of the mishaps is that the immigrants make the language as a second language. The instance, therefore, creates the need to understand the background of the students and the consequent effects that the background has on a new course. Moreover, a prior analysis of the various misconceptions that learners have towards learning a second language is crucial with the aim of establishing the best of course of action. Other factors that may be of help in teaching English to immigrants is the consideration of the processes that involve the knowledge of English and consequently comprehend the wider scope that represents the cultural and social issues. The issues that shape up the acquisition of the English language by the immigrants is thus are a constituent of the essay. The article also articulates on the different solutions that are relevant in the complex process of the language learning. A summary appears at the completion of the document in an instance of giving a preview of the whol e document. Misconceptions misrepresent the needs of immigrant students and present simplistic approaches to second language learning and complicate the process of teaching and learning English. If students communicate in English, they have competence to use language in mainstream courses. Educators sometimes assume that if immigrant students can communicate in everyday life, they can have the competence to use language in an every variety of settings, especially mainstream course of English. However, there are gaps between everyday communication and mainstream courses language use for the second language learners (Cacden, 1988). These gaps occur because there are differences between home based and course-based value system and knowledge. Such Differences between home and English courses lead to difficulties for English language learners to access to academic and mainstream course language (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). Based on this misconception, immigrant

Audie Murphy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Audie Murphy - Essay Example The leadership style of Audie Murphy made him the most decorated American Soldier of the Second World War. Audie Murphy had a small body size, which made the Marines, Navy and paratroopers to reject him. When the United States entered the Second World War, Murphy had an expectation of being enlisted. However, the Marines, the Navy and the paratroopers reject him on the ground of his small size and youthful appearance (Rosenberg, 1955). In most cases, people relate the size of the body to the strength of the soldiers, which enables them to defeat their enemies. Finally Murphy is reluctantly accepted by the Army as an ordinary infantryman. After Murphy had acquired basic and infantry training, he was shipped out to the Third Infantry Division located in North Africa mainly as a replacement. In the first unit, third Infantry Division 15th Regiment, Murphy had difficulty of being in the line unit. The Commander thought that it was a mistake for Murphy to be the line unit due to the fact that his path health was not good. Lieutenant Manning noted the physical deficiencies of Manning thus recommending that he be resigned (Rosenberg, 1955). However, Audie Murphy stood up for himself explaining that he had an interest in the Army and that is all he wants to do. Even though Murphy had not been promoted to the rank of leadership, he showed some qualities of a good leader. Later Manning changed his mind after Audie had insisted upon fighting and signed up for every educational course. After Murphy had convinced his commander to allow him stay, he demonstrated his loyalty and pride. In his first unit, Murphy could try very hard to enable him to improve. Murphy also learned to be tactically and technically proficient, which could enhance his career. This showed his fellow soldiers that he had the characters and capabilities of leadership. A leader is expected to hold the top position thus charged with the responsibility of issuing directives in order to achieve a common goa l (Mangi et al., 2011). Therefore, the leader should be tactically and technically proficient in order to realize the achievement of the goal. Murphy had an interest in the Army because it is all he wanted and after convincing the Commander to allow him stay, he soon proves himself in a battle. Due to the good qualities observed in Audie Murphy during the battle, he steadily gets promotion even though it was against his will at first. Murphy was promoted as a battlefield commission to the rank of second lieutenant. A leader should treat his people equally showing love to all of them (Mangi et al., 2011). Audie Murphy displayed the qualities of a good leader by showing respect and love to his fellow soldiers. During the many battles that occurred in Italy, France and Sicily, Audie Murphy takes the lead and this makes him gains the respect of his men thus enabling him to be close to his fellow soldiers. During the battles, Murphy perceives himself as part of the unit and he believes t hat everything he performs is meant to benefit the unit and not individually. Murphy acknowledges the fact that every activity he performs will enable the unit advance as a whole and not individually. This shows the quality of a good leader. As a leader, one should focus on achieving the goals that benefit the whole group rather than individual persons. A leader does not emphasize on achieving individual goals but

20th century poetry Essay Example for Free

20th century poetry Essay We have been giving to 20th century poems to examine. They are Evans by R. S Thomas and Death in Leamington by Sir John Betjeman. Both poems are about death, but in two very different situations. I will examine the poem Evans first of all. Evans was written by a man called R. S Thomas. He lived from 1913-2000. he was born in Cardiff. He became a clergyman and taught himself welsh so he could work with the people in the hills, because not many of them spoke English at this time. Evans is a 20th Century poem. The poem begins as if the writer is talking to somebody else. It looks like the other person has asked him something like, Do you remember a man Evans? and the writer replies, yes, many a time. The first verse of the poem describes Evans house. It talks about the bare stairs and the gaunt kitchen. We can depict from the first verse that Evans was a poor man, his house is not at all well furbished, and he doesnt have much to his name. Everything that Evans owns has a dull, dreary adjective attached to it, like stark farm and black kettle. His kitchen must be filthy because crickets can be heard. The last line of this verse tells us that he lives on a lone farm upon a hill. From this verse we have found out that this man is poor, lonely and doesnt really care much about what his house looks like. The 2nd verse tells us that something appals the speaker. He says that it isnt the darkness around him, which seems to fill his mouth and that it isnt the tree that the rain drips off. I think the tree is symbolism, because the speaker says, of rain like blood form that one tree, weather tortured. I think he is really describing Evans appearance. The speaker says that its the veins of Evans. He sees darkness in them, and that it is silting them. Silt is the thick sandy substance at the bottom of rivers. I think it means that the darkness is trapped in Evans veins and that it is slowly killing him. The writer says, I left stranded upon the vast and lonely shore of his bleak bed. The writer believes that he has failed is his job, which is to comfort the sick if they are going to die. The writer feels that he is inadequate and that he hasnt done what he wanted to. Again we see another dreary adjective attached to one of Evans possessions, his bleak bed. The word lonely is used again here. The writer wants to get the point across that Evans has no one, no family or friends to comfort him, that is why the writer feels so bad that he cant do this for him. This poem is about the bad way to die, all on your own and no one to comfort you. The next poem, Death in Leamington, is about the other way to pass on. Death in Leamington was written by Sir John Betjeman. Poets of his day liked to write poems making fun of the middle class people. The first verse tells us that someone has died, and that it is a woman. It has happened in the late evening. She has died in her bedroom. The room has a plate glass window, which means this place wherever she was staying must has been pretty well off. The second verse gives us a little more insight to the woman. She owned a crochet, which means she must have been quite old. It lay beside her bed, which means she cant have been too old because she was still able to walk. Again the writer tells us that she is dead.

Mental illness Essay Example for Free

Mental illness Essay Charlotte Perkins Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper, relays to the reader something more than a simple story of a woman at the mercy of the limited medical knowledge in the late 1800s. Gilman creates a character that expresses real emotions and a psyche that can be examined in the context of modern understanding. The Yellow Wallpaper, written in first person and first published in 1892 in the January edition of the New England Magazine, depicts the downward spiral of depression, loss of control and competence, and feelings of worthlessness that lead to greater depression and the possibility of schizophrenia. The beginning emphasis will be on the interaction and roles of the husband and wife in The Yellow Wallpaper, which are based on the male dominated times of the late 1800s. The main character, a woman whose name is never revealed, tells us of the mental state of mind she is under and how her husband and his brother, both physicians, dismiss it. You see, he does not believe I am sick! And what can one do? If a physician of high standing, and ones own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depression a slight hysterical tendency what is one to do? The doctors seem completely unable to admit that there might be more to her condition than just stress and a slight nervous disorder even when a summer in the country and weeks of bed-rest have not helped. It might be thought that it is a simple matter of a loving husband being overprotective of his ill wife, but this assumption is quickly washed away by his arrogant atti tudes, combined with his callous treatment of her that only serve to compound the problem. At first he meant to repaper the room, but afterwards he said that I was letting it get the better of me, and that nothing was worse for a nervous patient than to give way to such fancies. John treats his wife in a manner that gives her reason to doubt herself and her capabilities. Her husband John has explicitly forbidden her to do certain things, although we are never told why; but it can be assumed that it is because of her frailty that some of these activities have been taken away from her. As such being prohibited to work and not being able to contribute to the household as a proper wife and new  mother she begins to feel helpless. So I am absolutely forbidden to work until I am well again. Personally, I disagree with their ideas. Additionally, she has been told not to write: There comes John, and I must put this away he hates to have me write a word. With no creative outlet her mind starts to find things upon which to dwell, things that only she can see. Virtually imprisoned in her bedroom, supposedly to allow her to rest and recover, she slowly starts to go insane. Without compassion or an outlet for her creativity, her mind turns inward and focuses on her now increasingly shrinking universe. She has no say in the location or the decor of her room. I dont like our room a bit. . . But John would [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5u7t0TuAnKU] not hear of it. She is not allowed visitors, It is so discouraging not to have any advice and companionship . . . but he says he would as soon put fireworks in my pillow-case as to let me have those stimulating people about now. In large part because of this oppression, she continues to decline. I dont feel as if it was worthwhile to turn my hand over for anything and Im getting dreadfully fretful and querulous. However by keeping her a prisoner in a room with offensive wallpaper and very little to occupy her mind, John almost forces her to dwell on her psyche. Prison is supposed to be depressing, and she is pretty close to being a prisoner. The story does hint to the fact that John knows he could have done more but simply does not seem to want to be bothered with the effort of such an endeavour for his wife. He never acknowledges that she has a real problem until the end of the story, at which time he fainted. John could have obtained council from someone less personally involved in her case, but the only help he sought was for the condition of the house and the baby. He obtained a nanny to watch over the children while he was away at work each day: It is fortunate Mary is so good with the baby. He also had his sister Jennie take care of the house. She is a perfect and enthusiastic housekeeper. There is one instance, however, when he does talk of taking her to an expert for assistance, John says if I dont pick up faster he shall send me to Weir Mitchell in the fall. Nevertheless she took that as a  threat since Dr. Mitchell was even more domineering than her husband and his brother. Perhaps, if she had been allowed to come and go and do as she pleased her depression might have lifted, I think sometimes that if I were only well enough to write a little it would relieve the press of ideas and rest me. It seems to her that just being able to tell someone how she really feels would have eased her depression, but her husband would not hear of it because of the embarrassing consequences it could bring to the family name. Thus, John has made her a prisoner in their marriage where her opinions are pushed aside, and her self-worthiness questioned. She does have a rebellious spirit in her and the fact that this spirit is being crushed is the final nail towards her insanity. Her desperation is almost like someone being buried alive and screaming knowing that there are people just above but who seem not to hear or care. Her reaction is to seek to prove her husband wrong, John is a physician, and perhaps . . . perhaps that is one reason I do not get well faster . . . While putting on an appearance of submission, in actuality she was frequently rebelling against her husbands orders. She writes when there is nobody around to see her, and she tries to move her bed, but always keeps an eye open for someone coming. As her breakdown approaches she actually locks her husband out of her room, I have locked the door and thrown the key down into the front path. I dont want to go out, and I dont want to have anybody come in, till John comes. I want to astonish him. This forces him to see that he has been wrong, and, since she knew he could not tolerate hysteria, to eventually drive him away. While there is supporting evidence that her husbands treatment of her was a major contributing factor to her madness, the possibility also exists that her madness was caused by an internal illness which, given the level of medical knowledge, her husband was unable to deal with appropriately. As mentioned in the beginning of this essay, Gilman creates a character that has real emotions and a real psyche that impresses upon the reader that she is slowly deteriorating into a mental illness known as schizophrenia (a disintegration of the personality). This illness, however it manifests itself within the personality of someone is usually highlighted through a variety of symptoms. The leading character exhibits these symptoms sporadically throughout the story. To begin with, one of the more obvious of her symptoms is her irrational obsession, displayed by relentless thoughts of and about, the yellow wallpaper that wraps the walls in her room. It is a room that she feels captured by and her obsessions start from the beginning of the story. I never saw a worse paper in my life, she says. It is dull enough to confuse the eye in following, pronounced enough to constantly irritate and provoke study Taken in isolation, this kind of observation might appear to be harmless to the uninformed observer, but as her obsession with the wallpaper grows, so does her dementia. At one point she describes lying on her bed and follow[ing] that pattern about by the hour . . . I determine for the thousandth time that I will follow that pointless pattern to some sort of conclusion. Interconnected with the first symptom of irrational obsession is that of thought processing disorder. This disorder can range in severity from a vague muddiness of thinking to a complete breakdown of ones mental processes. The first real clues that she is having trouble controlling her mental state of being comes into focus when she states, I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes . . . I take pains to control myself before him, at least, and that makes me very tired She tries to discuss her feelings rationally, but this only brings a stern reproachful look at which she gives up and returns to her room. Again her condition is revealed a few pages later when remarking that, It is getting to be a great effort for me to think straight. Soon, other noticeable changes in her mental state start to take shape. She slowly begins to show symptoms of paranoia, yet another unfortunate schizophrenic trait. She speaks of how happy she is that her baby is not exposed to the same torturous existence that she has to endure in her room with the yellow wallpaper. Of course I never mention it to them any more I am too wise, but I keep watch of it all the same Even the mistrust of her caretakers is further evidenced when she says, The fact is I am getting a little afraid of John. He seems very queer sometimes, and even Jennie has an inexplicable look When catching Jennie looking at the yellow wallpaper, she thinks to herself, But I know she was studying that pattern, and I am determined that nobody shall find it out but myself? This type of  paranoia is a firm indication that her psychological state is continuing to deteriorate towards complete schizophrenia. Another in the list of common symptoms of schizophrenia that the protagonist exhibits is hallucination. Of these hallucinations, one is when she sees people walking in the paths that she views from her bedroom window. As her condition worsens, she begins to have other hallucinations, this time focused on the yellow wallpaper itself. This is noticed when she exclaims, At night in any kind of light, in twilight, candlelight, lamplight, and worst of all by moonlight, it [the wallpaper] becomes bars! The outside pattern, I mean, and the woman behind it is as plain as can be. In addition to her mental hallucinations, she starts to also have ones where she can smell things as well, the only thing I can think of that it is like is the colour of the paper! A yellow smell. The climactic stage of her hallucinations comes when she realizes, that woman gets out in the daytime! It is at this point that her deranged thought processes become a coping mechanism to help her deal with her mental state of being. She passes into a full schizophrenic state and transforms from a helpless, self-pitying woman, to one who feels, in her mind at least, that she has broken free of her shackles. She feels that she has gained a sense of control, no matter how false that sense may be, as she says, I dont want to go out, and I dont want to have anybody come in, till John comes. I want to astonish him. Much has changed by the end of the story, so much in fact that in the end it is she who is metaphorically and literally creeping over John, who has fainted after seeing her in a deranged state of being. This is in contrast to their interactions up to this point when it was John who usually dictated and condescended her. The fact that the protagonist in this story is schizophrenic is supported by various bits of evidence. However, the question that remains to be answered is why a diagnosis of schizophrenia is important to interpreting The Yellow Wall-Paper. Schizophrenia is a logical choice in that it explains why the protagonist behaved in the way that she did. For her to overcome her submission to an environment that has sought to oppress her, she had to discard the personality within her that was meek and mild. This is a common defence mechanism of the mind in order to deal with situations it perceives to be uncontrollable. It is quite  possible within the realm of psychological study that the combination of the stress of childbirth, post-natal depression and the mental strain of having to repress her emotions triggered the schizophrenia. This terrible condition may have resulted from the bonds she felt would not allow her to express herself as a human being, mother and wife, a freedom that she so desperately needed. Her slide into madness, as a way to deal with her entrapment, is similar to a caged animal that, when backed into a corner, will fight for its life.

Molecular Modelling: Explained

Molecular Modelling: Explained Molecular modelling is one of the fastest growing fields in science, but what is it and what does it mean? â€Å"Molecular modelling encompasses all theoretical methods and computational techniques used to model or mimic the behaviour of molecules. The techniques are used in the fields of computational chemistry, drug design, computational biology and materials science for studying molecular systems ranging from small chemical systems to large biological molecules and material assemblies. The simplest calculations can be performed by hand, but inevitably computers are required to perform molecular modelling of any reasonably sized system. The common feature of molecular modelling techniques is the atomistic level description of the molecular systems. This may include treating atoms as the smallest individual unit (the molecular mechanics approach), or explicitly modelling electrons of each atom (the quantum chemistry approach).†[1] As stated, molecular modelling is a way to notice the interaction of a molecule with a molecular system. The best way currently to carry out this process is through computer modelling, but it is still plausible to perform the simplest of studies through the use of molecular mechanics or through the use of a notepad, pen and calculator. However the main concern is that most of the time it may be necessary to carry out molecular modelling through computer modelling as it can be very difficult to work out some of the calculations by hand, whereas the computer can accomplish this for us. So what is it? Furthermore to this all, molecular modelling is an expanding topic with more and more developments occurring within the field as the days go on. New scientific papers and methods are being posted as well as an increased amount of journals being published. From this we can see that it’s a topic with a huge variety knowledge and background. This is justified alone from how many issues there are with the problems where molecular modelling can be applied and the abundance of methods that can be used. The journals and papers written about molecular modelling also go into detail of theoretical chemistry and computational chemistry. As a result of this, it is very hard to keep up with molecular modelling techniques and theories due to the fact that there is an increased knowledge of the field as each day goes on. Thanks to the role of the internet, scientists are able to access more journals and papers to find articles on the relevant field they are interested in studying. This in tu rn also means that there are articles directed for all readers to understand, whether you know nothing at all to someone who is a researcher in the field of theoretical chemistry. The brilliance of this all is that there are documents of research, which keep up to date with only the recent developments, so it’s a quick fix for some scientists to see what they’ve missed out.[2] Molecular modelling is alternatively know as molecular mechanics. The basis of the method is to work out the structure and calculate the energy of molecules from their nuclear motion. The idea of how molecular modelling works is assumed on the Born-Oppenheimer approximation of the Schrà ¶dinger equation. This meaning that the approximation states that nuclei, due to their mass being greater than electrons, move more slowly. As a result we can identify the nuclear motion of nuclei separately to that of electrons and therefore the rotations and vibrations can be studied alone assuming that electrons move fast enough to adjust to any movement of its nuclei. Through the use of force fields, we can calculate the energy and geometry of a molecule. This creates the measure for molecular modelling. A force field is a collection of atom types, parameters and equations. By looking into further examples, we can show how molecular modelling is used. Looking into the idea of force fields, we can see that certain atoms have several atom types. We can look at compounds like ethylbenzene, which contains hybridised carbon atoms and aromatic carbon atoms. Through this, we can further explain it to show the parameters of force fields in different bonds as ethylbenzene has different C-C bonds, which are present in the ethyl group and phenyl ring. The total energy of a molecule is separated into different parts named force potentials. These are calculated separately and then added together to give the total energy present within a molecule. These force potentials are what are associated with the equations for the energies with bond stretching, bond bending, torsional strain and van der Waals interactions. E(total) = E(stretch) + E(bend) + E(s-b) + E(torsion) + E(vdW) + E(dp-dp) Energy due to Bond Stretching If a bond within a compound is stretched or compressed, the energy of the bond increases. The form of calculation for the potential energy for a bond stretching and compressing is a similar calculation to that of Hooke’s law for a spring, except a cubic term is included. As a result of the cubic term, it helps to keep the energy from rising too sharply when the bond is stretched. Energy due to Bond Angle Bending When bonds are bent away from the standard degree, the energy increases. However, there are some exceptions for the calculations of this energy, as cyclic compounds provide special atom types and parameters, which are used in the force field. Energy due to Stretch-Bend Interactions Bonds will stretch to release tension when two bonds have their angle reduced. Through the use of cross term potential functions, we can take into account the terms of bond stretching and bond bending together. Energy due to Torsional Strain intramolecular rotations require energy. The torsional potential is a Fourier series that accounts for all one to four through-bond relationships. Energy due to van der Waals Interactions The van der Waals radius of an atom gives its effective size. As two non-bonded atoms are brought together, the attraction increases causing a decrease in energy. If the distance between the two non-bonded atoms equals the sum of the can der Waals radii the attraction is at a maximum. The closer the atoms are brought together, the greater the energy and the greater the van der Waals repulsion. Energy due to Dipole-Dipole Interactions The calculation for dipole-dipole interactions is similar to that of Coulomb’s law. We can calculate it by considering all the interactions in a molecule. If there is a net charge present in the molecule, calculations must be carried out for charge-charge and charge-dipole.[3] To put this all into layman terms, molecular modelling varies from the construction and imaging of simple molecules to creating computer simulations on large protein molecules. Through the use of advanced computer software, we can visualise, rotate, optimise and manipulate molecular models. Some calculations can take up to a few seconds but there are models where it would take months to produce results.[4] What is it used for? Molecular modelling allows us to create a greater visual aspect to show the shapes of molecules and show how they interact. It is used vastly in certain fields, such as, Biology. An example of this would be through enzymes. Their substrates, receptors and their signalling. As of this we can see how useful and how certain molecules interact with one another forming complex molecules where we can then evaluate how strong the binding affinity is and how it would visually be seen. The biological activity of a drug molecule is supposed to depend on just one unique shape amongst all low energy structures. Through the use of molecular modelling, we can search and target these bioactive conformations. Molecular modelling allows us to identify the atomic and molecular interactions that control the behaviour of a physical system. The molecular interactions that would be identified would be those mentioned above to work out the energy of the force potentials. One of the first approaches to calculating molecule-molecule binding free energy differences was through the use of comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) [Cramer et al., 1988], which allowed us to understand and interpret the active sites of enzymes without a crystal structure being present. Molecular mechanics allows us to find the best viable solution in which we can model large and non-symmetrical chemical systems. This can be for molecules such as proteins and polymers. Through the use of the classical laws of physics, molecular mechanics allows us to predict the chemical properties of molecules. The issue with this is that we cannot calculate or deal with bond breakage or formation where the treatment of electrons dominate the effects. We tend to turn to molecular mechanics for comparative results rather than absolute quantities. For example, a force field is an empirical approximation for structure-energy relationships in molecules, which allows us to show a comparison between speed and accuracy. We can produce a better, or even, a more realistic geometry value for the vast majority of organic molecules, due to the fact they are highly parameterised thanks to molecular mechanics. Molecular dynamics is highly dependent on Newtonian mechanics. this is a conformation space search where atoms are given an initial velocity and are then allowed to evolve in the time. [van Gunsteren Berendsen, 1977]. The issue with molecular dynamics is that we have to use minimisation schemes, but if we take a look at the effects of temperature, some molecules can overcome the potential energy at the surface. Through the use of simulated annealing, we can control these issues at present [Kirkpatrick et al, 1983, Cerny, 1985]. This allows us to use molecular dynamic calculation in which the system temperature is raised to a large value to allow a spread of exploration of the available conformational space. With an increase in dynamics, the system temperature would be decreased. The last phase would be to use minimisation to select a minimum energy molecular conformation.[5] Molecular Modelling Challenges There are numerous challenges that pose in the way of molecular modelling. They range from the lack of knowledge about certain species of molecules to the free energy calculations that are taken place. There has been vast development in knowledge within areas such as in gene databases. The issue is, there is a lack of information in the laws of protein folding for example. There is only so much we know about sequence information but with the little intelligence we have about protein folding, it restricts the inference of structure from sequence. A novel approach scans a pathological vector victimisation the tools of molecular biology; of the various relevant proteins made, a couple of are often isolated, crystallised, and structurally elucidated. The structures of traditional and pathological molecules are often compared and compounds designed to inhibit pathogenic enzymes or receptors by selection. distinguishing the targets is that the initial downside we tend to encounter. So with the structure of even one target protein, and therefore the information of function of its receptor or active site, its currently doable to use computer tools to make and dock a ligand or inhibitor before investing time and resources for synthesis and testing. Conversely, large-scale screening might detect â€Å"new leads† that then should be modelled so as to explore later synthetic analogs. In either case, molecular modelling is crucial for understanding and exploring the structure-function relationship. attractive and repulsive forces are often summed and therefore the work quantified. Ideally, one seeks a correlative listing of experimental and computational values to offer assurance that novel compounds are often evaluated before being synthesised. However, there still are exceptions and sudden surprises (Meyer et al., 1995) that has to temper the passion of the molecular modeller. Based on Fischer’s â€Å"lock and key† simile, the mechanical view of molecular interactions are often understood and applied to biomolecules. However, even â€Å"rigid† molecules have local flexibility and fluxional water molecules are typically a structural appendage of each the â€Å"lock† and therefore the â€Å"key,† which implies the in vivo structure might disagree considerably from that on the display screen. Therefore, modelling code must have a choice to simulate the presence of pervasive water molecules. Molecular mechanics calculations will solely seek the local energy minimum, however are unable to climb the pass into the next energy level. Molecular dynamics simulations are a strong tool for inclusion of the fluxional nature of biomolecules and in best circumstances, will explore the energetic landscape in search of the energy minimum. Atomic parameters are approximate and based on a generic, classical atom, whereas these parameters change modify in a fluxional structure, thus quantum molecular dynamics is required. This field has however to mature, and necessary computational resources greatly exceed today’s supercomputers, to not mention the PC. Again, however does one treat water rigorously (dielectric constant, ionisation state, fluxional H-bond- ing; bulk vs. microscopic quantities)? Challenge #3 could be a rigorous computational simulation of a biochemical reaction in an exceedingly in a accessible to the synthetic chemist, as mentioned by professor Ursula Roethlisber ger (ETH Zentrum, Zà ¼rich, Switzerland) at this symposium.[6] Another big issue is the topi that there is extreme difficulty in calculation free energies by computer. Free energy is often considered to be the most important value when looking into thermodynamics. It can be expressed in two ways, Helmholtz function or Gibbs function. Both work similarly in the sense that they both work with only a constant number of particles and a constant temperature, but Gibbs free energy works with also a constant pressure (NPT) and Helmholtz works with a constant volume (NVT). Most experiments that are carried out, it is best suited to use the Gibbs function as most conditions are kept under constant temperature and pressure. The issue with all of this, is that free energy calculations are difficult to carry out then working with liquids or flexible macromolecules as they have far too many minimum energy configurations separated by low-energy barriers. Other calculations that are difficult to carry out are those such as entropy and chemical potentials. Through the use of the Monte Carlo simulation or ‘standard’ molecular dynamics, it is still very difficult to calculate free energy because said simulations do not sufficiently sample the regions of phase space, which contribute greatly to free energy. The two simulations, molecular dynamics sampling and Monte Carlo, are used to find the lower-energy reasons of phase space. as a result, the sampling data will not show reflection of the high-energy regions, so calculating free energy through simulation tends to give inaccurate values. Another problem is the calculation of free energy differences of two states. We can approach these issues mentioning the simulations above. Three methods have been proposed; thermodynamic perturbation, thermodynamic integration and slow growth. From these we can calculate the free energy differences. New methods for calculating free energy changes can be worked out with errors no more than 1 kcal / mol in certain cases. Through the use of the two different simulations, one of the initial system and one of the final system. The energies calculated from the two systems are large numbers, with a great error. The difference would be comparable in magnitude to the error in the energy of each system. We determine what the free energy is in terms of interactions involving the solute, which in turn allows us to give a more accurate reading in energy calculations. The two energy systems calculated, are large numbers with a great deal of error, but from this we can take the enthalpy difference and error difference then compare them in magnitude. From this, free energy is calculated based on the interactions involving the solute, therefore we can calculate free energy much more accurately. When looking at the major sources of error with free energy calculations in computer simulations, they can result from inaccuracies in potential model choice or its implementation. Our other source of error comes from the phase space, by collection insufficient sampling. The main issue is the fact that we cannot find a method that guarantees adequate coverage of phase space, meaning it is hard to calculate free energy values. We can identify the inadequate sampling through two methods, we can run the simulation for an increased duration, so using the molecular dynamics simulation, or for an increased amount of repetitions, so the Monte Carlo simulation. We can perform this in both the forward and reverse directions, so a different scheme can be use to calculate the free energy difference. Most of the time, the simulation is run in both directions, and from this, we can calculate the lower-bound estimate of the error in calculation from the different in free energy values. One thing we have to be cautious of is the fact that we need to be careful when carrying out these simulations, because when we cary out more than necessary amounts of simulation over a short simulation, estimating errors is a lot more difficult because the results give a near zero difference between the forward and reverse directions. If the time of simulation exceeds that of the relaxation time of the system, then it is possible to carry it out reversibly. However, if the time of simulation is that of the same order of magnitude as the relaxation time then approximately zero hysteresis may result. This would be due to the incapability of the system to adjust to the changes. Within this, free energies in both directions could appear to be the same and as a result, quite likely to be wrong.[7] [1] Molecular modelling Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. 2014. Molecular modelling Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_modelling. [Accessed 22 March 2014]. [2] Leach, Andrew R., 2001. Molecular Modelling: Principles and Applications. 2nd ed. London: Harlow : Prentice Hall. [3] Introduction to Molecular Modeling. 2014. Introduction to Molecular Modeling. [ONLINE] Available at: http://chemistry.gsu.edu/Glactone/modeling/MMintro.html. [Accessed 22 March 2014]. [4] What is Molecular Modeling?. 2014. What is Molecular Modeling?. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.worldofmolecules.com/txtbk2/topic1.htm. [Accessed 22 March 2014]. [5] Using Molecular Modelling to Study Interactions Between Molecules with Biological Activity | InTechOpen. 2014. Using Molecular Modelling to Study Interactions Between Molecules with Biological Activity | InTechOpen. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.intechopen.com/books/bioinformatics/using-molecular-modelling-to-study-interactions-between-molecules-with-biological-activity. [Accessed 22 March 2014]. [6] Edgar F. Meyer, Stanley M. Swanson, Jocylin A. Williams, 2000. Molecular Modelling and Drug Design. Pharmacology Therapeutics, [Online]. 85, 113–121. [7] Leach, Andrew R., 2001. Molecular Modelling: Principles and Applications. 2nd ed. London: Harlow : Prentice Hall.

My Response Phase Portfolio - Hot-Seating, Roleplay, Cross-cutting, :: Drama

My Response Phase Portfolio - Hot-Seating, Roleplay, Cross-cutting, and Marking the moment. My Response Phase Portfolio Hot-Seating When we Hot-seated Johnny we found out a lot of information about the character. Little things such as "How old are you?" helped. By Hot-seating we learned that even such things , that matter so little can help develop a drama. We could also find out personal details that he probably didn't want anyone else to know. By doing this we could then decide how to develop the plot and characters. For example, If I asked Johnny "Where do you live?" and his reply was "By the Sea", we could produce a scene on the beach. This is just a typical example of how Hot-seating helps. Roleplay When we did a short Roleplay we could see how Johnny acted towards life, and this allowed to take a sneak at what everyday life is like for Johnny. We also got to see how he acted towards family and friends. On rare occasions we might be able to see how Johnny got himself into this situation. This helped us explore the text because we could see how he acted and what he does, If there are any problems and could those problems be solved. For example we might see Johnny in a pub with a drug gang after him because he owes money. We can now understand and see how and what life is like for Johnny. We (As an audience) could then decide whether to deal with the problem or just let it get out of hand. This is just an typical example of how Roleplay helps. Cross-cutting When we used Cross-cutting we saw how Johnny got himself into this bad situation of a drinking problem. This helped because we could see how others reacted to his drinking problems. For example we found out that Johnny's parents really did care for him, even though Johnny went around telling people his family were dead and that they wouldn't care anyway. We found this strategy helped because we could see what life was like before and while his problem occurred. Marking The Moment We marked the moment when we was developing our first scene in our drama. The scene was about Johnny in a pub, he was there drowning his sorrows. However when he thought life couldn't get worse 2 drug addicts came in asking for their money. Johnny had to tell them that he didn't have the money and they didn't like it. So they beat him up and leave him on the pub floor, threatening him before they leave. and he was being chased up by drug addicts for there moneyText Box: .

Theme of Power Corruption in Animal Farm, by George Orwell Essay

Power can have the persuasive action in undoing the moral ethics of one’s character. This can be seen throughout history, such as World War II and proven by the actions of Napoleon in the allegory, Animal Farm, by George Orwell. As Lord Acton said â€Å"Power tends to corrupt and absolute power corrupts absolutely.† In history what was viewed as a villain or wrong doer is never the same as the perception. A leader does not begin wanting to do wrong, they start with the best intentions, but power is a tricky thing, showcased in Animal Farm as Utopian ideals but with failed practices. Most new societies that have a Utopian idea most likely stem from a traumatic event where humanity believed it had no other choice but to go to the extreme. Animal Farm does the same thing; these animals feel mistreated by their leader, Mr. Jones so they follow the pigs in order to create a Utopia. In The Giver, by Ray Bradbury, everything appears perfect but there is a glitch that is often hidden in the powers that rule. In The Giver it was the simple truth of life and how they, the powers that ruled, deemed to control it in order to create their own Utopia. These powers, whether the government is one single ruling body, or many, the slow gain of power feeds and justifies any wrong doing. As Napoleon first started out along with the other pigs, they made the seven commandments. Napoleon enforced "The Seven Commandments† which include statements such as, â€Å"Whatever goes up on two legs is an enemy,† â€Å"No animal shall wear clothes,† â€Å"No animal shall drink alcohol,† and â€Å"No animal shall kill any other animal.† By the end of the book, Napoleon breaks all of these commandments for his personal gain. Napoleon uses his power to alter the commandments in order t... ...mal Farm. Ed. Terry O'Neill. San Diego, Calif.: Greenhaven Press, 1998. 70-81. Rpt. in Short Story Criticism. Ed. Joseph Palmisano. Vol. 68. Detroit: Gale, 2004. Literature Resource Center. Web. 25 Nov. 2013. 3. Kirschner, Paul. "The Dual Purpose Of Animal Farm." Review Of English Studies 55.222 (2004): 759-786. Literary Reference Center Plus. Web. 25 Nov. 2013. 4. Richard I Smyer. Some Perversions of Pastoral Animal Farm: Pastoralism and Politics Twayne's Masterwork Studies 19. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988. p30-66. COPYRIGHT 1988 Twayne Publishers, COPYRIGHT 2010 Gale, Cengage Learning 5. Lowry, Lois. The Giver. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1993. Print. 6. Shakespeare, William. Macebeth. Ed. Rex Gibson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Print. 7. "The Holocaust." National Parks Service. National Parks Service, 16 Nov. 2013. Web. 24 Nov. 2013.

Money Past and Present. Essay -- History Trade Economics Papers

Money Past and Present. Money as a medium of exchange in barter and trade has always in all times found expression in some form or other from necessity thereof. In the remotest periods, before gold or silver were generally in use, it took the form of animals, oxen, sheep, lambs, shells, etc. Thus we find used cattle in Germany, leather in Rome, sugar in the West Indies, shells in Siam, lead in Burmah, platinum in Russia, tin in Great Britain, iron and nails in Scotland, brass in China, and finally copper, silver and gold the world over. If we look up the sacred writings in quest of the earliest use of money quoted therein, we will find that the Bible mentions gold as a medium of value in the very first book of Moses which according to modern synchronology, would be about 4,000 years before the time of Christ, or almost 6,000 years ago. Namely, Genesis, Chapter II, 10, 11, 12. And a river went out of Eden, and the land of Haviliah, where there is gold and the gold of that land is good. Hence Adam and Eve could have found gold in Haviliah just the same as we do in the Yukon today. Immediately thereafter brass and iron are mentioned, Genesis, Chapter IV, 22. And Zillah she bare Tubal-Cain an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. Tubal-Cain, son of Iamech, a descendant of Cain, apparently was the first man to shape metals into articles of use and probably our very first goldsmith and jeweler. Silver is first mentioned in the Bible in the time of Abram, Genesis, Chapter XIII, 2, Abram was very rich in cattle, in silver and gold. The earliest mention of the word money occurs in Genesis, Chapter XVII, 12, 13, 23, He that is born in the house or bought with money. The first use of earrings and bracelets appears in Genesi... ...uctions are from photographs of the original coins and are fully explained as to their metal, denomination, country, etc., by the description printed with each plate. This, then, is the story of money -- how it came to be -- what it is today. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bressett, K.1991. Collectible American Coins. Publication International, Ltd., Lincolnwood, IL. Genesis, 1971. Ch. II, 10, 11, 13; Ch. XXIV, 22, 30; Ch. IV, 22; Ch. XIII, 2, Ch. VII, 22, in The Holy Bible, Revised Standard Version. Teaneck, NJ: Collins/Cokesbury. Mehl, M, 2004. A History Of Money. The Star Rare Coin Encyclopedia and Premium Catalog. The Numismatic Company of Texas, Fort Worth, Texas. Seidler, N., 1965. The Story of Money. Western Publishing Company, INC., USA. Yeoman, R., 2003. A Guide Book of US Coins. Whitman Publishing, LLC., Atlanta, GA. http://www.mfa.org/handbook/classic

Define Biotechnology and Write an Essay on the Current Status of Plant Biotechnology in the 21st Century by Focusing Mainly on Genetic Engineering

Define biotechnology and write an essay on the current status of plant biotechnology in the 21st century by focusing mainly on genetic engineering O O O FAQ | Register Now | Sign In HOME PHYSICAL SCIENCESPHYSICS SPACE CHEMISTRY APPLIED PHYSICS AEROSPACE OPTICS EARTH SCIENCESENVIRONMENT ENERGY ATMOSPHERIC PALEONTOLOGY GEOLOGY OCEANOGRAPHY LIFE SCIENCESGENETICS & MOLECULAR BIOLOGY EVOLUTION MICROBIOLOGY ECOLOGY & ZOOLOGY IMMUNOLOGY NEUROSCIENCE MEDICINECANCER RESEARCH PUBLIC HEALTH PHARMACOLOGY CLINICAL RESEARCH AGING VISION SOCIAL SCIENCESANTHROPOLOGY ARCHAEOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY SCIENCE EDUCATION & POLICYSCIENCE HISTORY PHILOSOPHY & ETHICS CULTURETECHNOLOGY MATHEMATICS SCIENCE & SOCIETY SPORTS SCIENCE RANDOM THOUGHTS HUMOR VIDEO CONTRIBUTORS Home > Life Sciences > Genetics & Molecular Biology > Humboldt Fellow and Science Recent advances in plant biotechnology: Applications in Agriculture. By Ashwani Kumar | August 21st 2009 11:29 AM | Print | E-mail | Track Comments Humboldt Fellow and Sc ience More Articles †¢Climate change and green economy-a cleaner option for sustainability †¢Sitopaladi churna is an ayurvedic medicine for cough and cold †¢Ethnobotany and Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi)All Articles About Ashwani Professor Emeritus ,Former Head of the Department of Botany, and Director Life Sciences, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur. 302004, India At present†¦ View Ashwani ‘s Profile Ashwani Kumar Recent advances in plant biotechnology: Applications in Agriculture. Ashwani Kumar Professor of Botany, Department of Botany and P G School of Biotechnology University of Rajasthan Jaipur 302004. [email  protected] com Tel 0141 2711654 ( Off) 0141 2654100 ( Res) Mob (0) 9414057484 Abstract:Biotechnology is an area of production and research in which biological systems and biological principles are employed to solve technological problems. In this sense it becomes all inclusive. And during the last decade the advancements in biology have led to the develo pment newer areas like , cellular engineering, biochips and biomaterial science, stem cells, nanobiotechnology etc. Biotechnology is a vast subject and covers Gene and genome analysis: analysis of genes and gene networks showing the potential for industrial application; gene expression studies; biotech plant breeding, e. g. marker assisted breeding.Transgenic technologies: Production and analysis of transgenic crops; gene insertion studies; gene silencing; factors affecting gene expression; post-translational analysis; molecular farming; field trial analysis; commercialisation of modified crops; safety and regulatory affairs Functional genomics: bioinformatics; gene function studies for applied uses Comparative genomics: applications to crop species; use of current crop databases Physiological studies: pathways relevant to an application; secondary metabolites; manipulations of physiology for stress resistance – abiotic and biotic stress resistance including salinity and drou ght stress.Development of salt resistance plant using plant biotechnology. Host pathogen interaction and role of plant biotechnology for developing resistant corps Developmental studies: developmental mechanisms leading to a further understanding of an industrial use of plants. Plant tissue culture and its role in plant biotechnology. Introduction: Scientists have been improving plants by changing their genetic makeup since the late 1800s. Typically, this has been accomplished through crossbreeding and hybridization, in which two related plants are cross-fertilized and the resulting offspring have characteristics of both parent plants.In the breeding process, however, many undesirable traits often can appear in addition to the desirable ones. Some of those undesirable traits can be eliminated through additional breeding, which is time consuming. Breeders can then further select and reproduce the offspring that have the desired traits. Many of the foods that are already common in our diet are obtained from plant varieties that were developed using conventional genetic techniques of breeding and selection. Today, by inserting one or more genes into a plant, scientists are able to produce a plant with new, advantageous characteristics.The new gene splicing techniques are being used to achieve many of the same goals and improvements that plant breeders historically have sought through conventional methods. They give scientists the ability to isolate genes and introduce new traits into foods without simultaneously introducing undesirable traits. This is an important improvement over traditional breeding. Because of the increased precision offered by the bioengineered methods, the risk of introducing detrimental traits is actually likely to be reduced. Gene and genome analysis:Detailed studies have been conducted on plant genome and physical and genetic maps are available for several plants. As an example of studies on genome the rice genome is discussed here. Rice has a much smaller genome (430 Mbp per haploid genome) than many other crops that belong to the Poaceae family. Due to the genome colinearity, high similarity in gene order and gene content, among the Poaceae family, the importance of rice genetics has been emphasized, and comparative analyses among rice, wheat, and maize have been intensively studied.As a result, rice becomes the model crop for the molecular genetic approach. This crop is available for many applications, including the construction of a high dense map, expressed sequence tag (EST) and full genomic sequence database, bacterial and yeast artificial chromosome (BAC and YAC) libraries, quantitative traits loci (QTL) mapping for yield and morphology, functional genomics by knockout mutagenesis using T-DNA insertion, map-based cloning, and genetically modified rice using transformation techniques. ( see review Cho et al. 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007).State-of-the-art Genome Profiling (GP) : The traditional approach for species identification is exclusively based on phenotypic traits such as morphological, anatomical, chemical properties and others, which are often affected by environmental factors and thus are difficult to analyze and unreliable. Interspecies homogeneity, intraspecies variability and the existence of undescribed species often lead to phenotypic misidentification. Moreover, species, which are phenotypically far less prominent, cannot be always identified in this way.To overcome these problems, genotypebased (nucleic acid-based) techniques have been employed as an alternative or complementary approach and have continuously been developed including RFLP ,AFLP, RAPD, 16S rRNA or 16S-23S internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence analysis and others. These methods provide a possible way to identify species directly based on their genomic sequences but none of them have been shown to identify species in general, mainly because of the insufficiency in the amount of information which they can provide.In this stream, the whole genome sequencing is surely the most definitive solution for species identification though simply too redundant for such purposes and impossible in practice to analyze all the constituents of a heavily dense population. On the other hand, the information obtained from the comparison of a single gene is often not sufficient to place a species at the appropriate position on the phylogenetic tree.In order to deal with above issues, previously Nishigaki and co-workers have described a realistic solution conforming to the notion of the amount of information sufficient for species identification and demonstrated this by inventing a novel method called Genome Profiling (GP), which is a temperature-gradient gel electrophoresis (TGGE) analysis of random-PCR products. Next, the complexity of the generated data, genome profiles, can be simplified by extracting feature points in GP, i. e. species identification dots (spiddos) which can be used for fur ther processing of measuring the similarity of two species by calculating Pattern Similarity Score (PaSS). Further, the technical advances by constructing internet-based GP databases (named On-web GP), and developing a highly reproducible and miniaturized system (micro-TGGE) have moved this technology towards being a universal, general and global tool for species identification( see review Biyani 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007)..Recombinant DNA technology: Gene targeting (GT) Gene targeting (GT) is a key technology for the rational, accurate and safe exploitation of plantsthrough genetic manipulation. Moreover, it offers the potential to completely knockout the expression of target genes or to make specific changes to gene function, objectives that cannot be achieved by conventional transgenesis. The ability to target DNA integration would permit the locus-specific integration of a transgene into a predetermined ite of the host genome, avoiding the accidental inactivation of an endogenous gene localized at the insertion site or the unexpected expression profiles of the transgene itself, the so-called position effect. Systematic isolation and sequencing of genomic DNA flanking the insertion sites (known as FSTs or Flanking Sequence Tag offers the opportunity to rapidly characterize plants altered in a candidate gene sequence. This approach is notably most useful in fully sequenced genomes such as in Arabidopsis thaliana.With 125 Mbp and 26,422 genes, the Arabidopsis genome shows very limited synteny with the 420–466 Mbp and 60,000 predicted genes of the rice genome. The recombination machinery has been well conserved throughout evolution, as an essential component of cell survival. In nature, homologous recombination is a DNA maintenance pathway that protects chromosomes against damage affecting both DNA strands, such as double strand breaks (DSBs) or interstrand crosslinks. DSB repair (DSBR) has been one of the most investigated homologous repair p athways see SHRIVASTAVA1, SHARMA2 AND KUMAR 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007).Recently plastid genome transformation technique has gained prominence due to its better integration and less chances of random spread. The genome propagated by higher plant plastids, the plastome, is typically a double stranded DNA molecule of 130 to 160 kb. Over one hundred copies of this genome can be present in a single plastid. It is ideally represented as a circular monomer containing 2 inverted repeats, even though reality is more complex since linear and circular multimers have been frequently detected The complete sequence of this highly polyploidy genome is available for about 20 different species of angiosperms http://megasun. ch. umontreal. ca/ ogmp/projects/other/cp_list. html). The first successful transformation of tobacco was performed using as marker a mutant plastid DNA fragment covering the 16SrRNA gene derived from a line resistant to spectinomycin and streptomycin. Major improvement s in the selection process were soon obtained with the dominant aadA marker gene, inactivating spectinomycin or streptomycin. When fused to GFP, this marker can be used to track the selection process.Genes encoding resistance to kanamycin, nptII and more recently aphA-6 are also possible options, and could be more appropriate for some species (Kumar et al. , 2004a see review Dubald. 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007). There are three different fates for the external DNA to get integrated into the native genome. They are homologous recombination, illegitimate recombination or nonhomologous end joining, and single-strand annealing. . Single-strand annealing (SSA), a third path of repair, requires the presence of repeated sequences on both sides of a break.After exonuclease degradation of the 5’ ends, repair occurs by annealing of the two complementary sequences, a process leading to the loss of the genetic information contained between these repeats. With respect to the speci es preferential DSB repair pathway, HR but also IR mediates transgene integration. This second aspect explains the inefficiency of GT in higher plants, which use HR as a minor pathway of repair. Thus, despite the fact that transgene integration processes are still unclear in plants transgenic DNA would be preferentially integrated by end joining whether or not sharing homology within the host genome.GM crops: The U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has found no evidence to indicate that either ordinary plant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or the DNA inserted into plants using bioengineering presents food safety problems. Nor are the small amounts of the newly expressed proteins likely to change dramatically the safety profile of the plant. If safety concerns should arise, however, they would most likely fall into one of three broad categories: allergens, toxins, or anti-nutrients. FDA has extensive experience in evaluating the safety of such substances in food.It is important to n ote that the kinds of food safety testing typically conducted by developers of a bioengineered food crop to ensure that their foods meet all applicable requirements of the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act (FD;C Act) address these potential concerns. In the event that something unexpected does occur, this testing provides a way to detect such changes at the developmental stage and defer marketing until any concern is resolved. As aforementioned, some of the food safety concerns that could arise include: Allergens: Foods normally contain many thousands of different proteins.While the majority of proteins do not cause allergic reactions, virtually all known human allergens are proteins. Since genetic engineering can introduce a new protein into a food plant, it is possible that this technique could introduce a previously unknown allergen into the food supply or could introduce a known allergen into a â€Å"new† food. Toxins: It is possible that a new protein, as introduced into a cr op as a result of the genetic modification, could cause toxicity. Anti-nutrients: It is possible that the introduction of anti-nutrients, such as molecules like phytic acid, could reduce essential dietary minerals such as phosphorus.The use of genetic engineering techniques could also result in unintended alterations in the amounts of substances normally found in a food, such as a reduction of Vitamin C or an increase in the concentration of a naturally occurring toxicant in the plant food. LEGAL AND REGULATORY ISSUES: One important component in ensuring food safety is the U. S. regulatory structure. The FDA regulates bioengineered plant food in conjunction with the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).FDA has authority under the FD;C Act to ensure the safety of all domestic and imported foods for man or animals in the United States market. The exceptions to this are meat, poultry and certain egg products, which are regulated b y USDA. The safety of animal drug residues in meat and poultry, however, is regulated by FDA. Pesticides, including those bioengineered into a food crop, are regulated primarily by EPA. USDA’s Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) oversees the agricultural and environmental safety of planting and field testing bioengineered plants.Bioengineered foods and food ingredients must adhere to the same standards of safety under the FD;C Act that apply to their conventionally bred counterparts. This means that these products must be as safe as the traditional foods in the market. FDA has the power to remove a food from the market, or sanction those marketing the food if the food poses a risk to public health. It is important to note that the FD;C Act places a legal duty on developers to ensure that the foods they market to consumers are safe and comply with all legal requirements.Area under the commercialization of genetically modified (GM), often called biotech crops con tinued to grow for the ninth consecutive year at a sustained double-digit growth rate of 20% in 2004 (James, 2004). The estimated global area of approved GM crops for 2005 was 90. 0 million hectares with $4. 70 billion global market value—based on the sale price of GM seed plus any technology fees that apply. The global value of the GM crop market is projected a more than $5. 0 billion for 2005 (James, 2004). Commercialization of genetically modified (GM) crops continued to grow for the ninth consecutive year.It reflects the substantial improvements in productivity, the environment, economics, health and social benefits realized by farmers, consumers and society. At the same time the growing controversy over GM food products increased interest in food labelling and identity preservation (IP) of GM crops. Hence, an IP system must be designed to provide assurances that the desired traits are present (or absent) in a product from the seed source, through all steps of production and delivery, to the end user. There are numerous regulatory issues related to GM crops.These include the testing and acceptance of new GM crops for commercial introduction, both domestically and internationally. Nearly every country has different approaches and many have their own regulatory framework, with an intent to prevent cross-contamination of the conventional food and feed industries. IP tracking software is also available in market to ease the burdens associated with precise record-keeping requirements. The economics of IP has been calculated by various scientists depending on different applied IP systems.Niche-marketing opportunities will grow, because of the availability of GM crops and finally, IP of agricultural commodities from GM crops can provide greater choice and value desired by both agricultural producers and consumers (DOSHI AND FRANCOIS EUDES, 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007) Based on annual percentage growth in area, of the eight leading GM crop countries , India had the highest percentage year-on-year growth in 2004 with an increase of 400% in Bt cotton area over 2003, followed by Uruguay (200%), Australia (100%), Brazil (66%), China (32%), south Africa (25%), Canada (23%), Argentina (17%) and USA at 11%.India increased its area of approved Bt cotton, introduced only two years ago, from approximately 38,038 hectares in 2002/ 03 to 560,000 hectares in 2004/05 seasons with Bt coverage of 11. 65% and approximately 300,000 small farmers benefited from Bt cotton( see review DOSHI AND EUDES, 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007). . REGULATORY ISSUES RELATED TO GM CROPS: There are numerous regulatory issues related to GM crops. These include the testing and acceptance of new GM crops for commercial introduction and the introduction of food products containing ingredients from GM crops, both domestically and internationally.Nearly every country has different approaches and many have their own regulatory framework. Regulation is a very dynami c issue with changes being reviewed and proposed in many countries on an ongoing basis. Numerous regulatory actions are consequently being proposed as governments react to consumer concerns and pressures. Several countries have or have proposed to create new agencies to specifically cover GM crops. Approaches range from cautious acceptance to attempts to ban (growing and even imports), at least for the foreseeable future, all crops and products with GM traits.Each is approaching the testing, introduction, and acceptance of GM crops in its own manner and on its own time schedule. Table 6 summarizes the current status of some of the regulations related to introduction, approval, and commercial acceptance of GM crops. Table 6. Status of regulations over GM products. Abiotic and biotic resistance: Coat Protein Mediated Resistance: CP is an important structural protein as it not only protects the viral nucleic acid from degradation, but also plays an important role in virus infection.Its functions includes acquisition and transmission of virus by vectors, cell to cell and long distance spread of the virus in host plants, and for some viruses, it regulates one or more steps of virus replication. Coat Protein (CP) mediated resistance has been demonstrated for 17 groups of viruses, and so far this strategy has shown best promise. CP transgenes have been shown to be effective in preventing or reducing infection and diseases caused by homologous and closely related viruses (Gonsalves, et al. , 1998).Coat protein-mediated protection has been reported for Tobacco mosaic virus, TMV,Tomato mosaic virus, ToMV, (Sa), Cucumber mosaic virus, CMV, Alfalfa mosaic virus, AlMV, (Loesch-Fries et al. , 1987; Tumer et al. , 1997), Potato virus X, PVX, Potato virus Y, PVY, Potato leaf roll virus, PLRV, Papaya ringspot virus (PRSV) and a number of other viruses. CP-mediated resistance in Cantaloupe, Papaya, Potato, Squash and Tomato has been tested under the field conditions with fair d egree of protection against most of the viruses (Table 4). ( see review Verma and Parveen 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007)Anti-HIV Agents Among Desert Plants Around 40 million people are affected due to the Human Immuno-deficiency Virus globally. During the past decades, a large number of anti-viral screening experiments on medicinal plant extracts have been reported and have led to the selection of several extracts active towards herpes viruses. A promising result of a naturally occurring antiherpetic agent was given by n- docosanol (a natural 22 carbon saturated fatty alcohol) which is undergoing phase III clinical trials in patients. Clinical testing of the topical formulation, or systemic administration of drug suspensions has demonstrated good therapeutic index, since high doses of n- docosanol do not elicit appreciable toxicity. The findings show that natural products are still potential sources in the search for new antiherpatic agents (Hattori et al. , 1995). Various pla nt extracts used in Ayurvedic medicine for inhibitory effects on HIV virus have been studied (Hattori, personal communication). A large number of such plants occur in semi-arid and arid climate of Rajasthan. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) , the great pandemic of the second half of the 20th Century, is still a threatening disease world wide.Many research approaches are currently aimed at developing novel agents to arrest the replication of HIV through various targets. These may include the inhibition of reverse transcriptase (RT), protease (PR), membrane fusion and integrase. HIV PR enzyme has been demonstrated to play an essential role in viral replication ( see review Kumar 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007) A range of HIV PR inhibitors have been designed and applied in clinical trials such as Sanqunavir, Ritonavir and Indinavir. However, the development of drug resistance by virus, irrespective of the target, remains as an overwhelming problem in AIDS chemotherapy.Thu s there is great need to search for and develop new and different anti-HIV candidates from plants and natural products are of considerable importance. In search for anti-HIV active agents from natural products, many attempts at screening traditional medicines have been made. Biotic and abiotic stress: Environmental abiotic stress conditions, and especially drought and salinity, are currently the major factors which reduce crop yields world-wide leading to the fact that more than 800 million people are chronically undernourished..The United Nations Environment Program estimates that approximately 20% of agricultural land and 50% of cropland in the world is saltstressed This salinity, in particular, is an increasing problem and nearly half of the area under irrigation, is at risk to be lost due o building up of salinity. Therefore genetic improvement of salt tolerance has become an urgent need for the future of agriculture in arid and semiarid regions.. One way of solving this problem would be breeding tolerant varieties of crop plants that can be grown on saline soils, but these breeding programs are time consuming and remained elusive .Hence, many metabolic changes are known to occur in plants subjected to salt stress, physiological parameters such as ionic relations have been suggested to be used as tolerance indicators since they can be related to salt tolerance mechanisms. Biofuel production: India has over 180 million of wasteland out of which 90 million ha is uncultivable. The degraded and denuded lands arise due to soil erosions as well as secondary salinizations. However Calotropis procera is a potential lant for bioenergy and biofuel production in semi arid regions of the country because it is able to grow on such lands. The plant has a growth potential of 2 dry tones to 40 dry tones per ha depending on the agro climatic conditions of it’s growth. The plant has high level of regeneration potential and could be harvested up to 4 times a year. The plant yields valuable hydrocarbons which could be converted into diesel substitutes. The bio-diesel derived from Calotropis procera is free from NOx gases, S02 and Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and has high cetane value.Due to it’s enormous potential for growth under adverse climatic conditions Calotropis procera is suggested as potential plant for bio-diesel production under semi-arid and arid conditions ( Anita and Kumar,2005, Anita et al. 2005). Jatropha curcas also provides non-edible oil which could be converted into methyl ester with a gain of glycerine ( Anita and Kumar 2007) . The JME is used as mix in the ratio of 05, to 20 percent blend to fossil fuel diesel and in Germany the use of Rape seed methyl ester is increasing. Soil salinity: Soil salinity affects plant production in many parts of the world, particularly on irrigated land.NaCl is the predominant salt in most saline environments. Many crop species are sensitive to high concentrations of salt with nega tive impacts on agricultural production. Maize (Zea mays L. ) is considered a moderately salt-sensitive plant.. Salt resistance of plants is a complex phenomenon that involves biochemical and physiological processes as well as morphological and developmental changes.. In addition to general osmotic stress, high concentrations of Na+ are toxic to maize and molecular mechanisms for salt resistance have not been fully identified or characterized (Zoerb et al 2004).The analysis of the plant’s proteome is an important amendment to the analysis of the genome, because gene expression is altered under salinity stress. The proteome, in contrast to the genome, is not static but rather dependent on a number of responses influenced by internal and external factors. The plant adaptation to environmental stress, such as soil salinity, is expected to have a strong influence on proteins. One approach to study the molecular mechanisms of plant responses to salinity is to use 2D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Furthermore, the dentification of differentially regulated proteins can lead to the identification of proteins and their corresponding genes which are involved in the physiology of salt resistance. The high resolution achieved by 2D gels and computer-assisted analysis of the differentially regulated proteins were used to examine those proteins whose synthesis was modulated by salt treatment and to quantify these changes. As far as we know, our investigations are the first to characterize the differentially expressed proteins from roots and shoots of maize after treatment with low and high salt stress.Plant material was an efficiently Na+-excluding maize inbred line developed in our laboratory. According to Munns the growth response to salt stress consists of two phases, first, a water-deficit that results from the relatively high solute concentrations in the root medium and, second, ion-specific stress resulting from altered K+/Na+ ratios or Na+ and Cl? concent rations that are toxic to plants. The aim of this study was to elucidate biochemical and physiological reactions of glycophytes to salt stress in the first phase of salinity. While all major crops, as well as most wild species, are glycophytes, i. e. ensitive to relatively low salt concentrations, there are plants naturally adapted to conditions of high salinity in the soil. These plants, known as halophytes, include a large taxonomic variety and occupy diverse habitats, from extreme dry to temporarily waterlogged sites or salt marshes, and can tolerate NaCl concentrations similar, or even higher than that of sea water, ca. 500 mM (Figure 1). It is – without doubt – necessary to develop sustainable biological production systems which can tolerate higher water salinity because freshwater resources will not come up with increasing demands of agricultural practice in near future.The sustainable use of halophytic plants is a promising approach to valorize strongly salinise d zones unsuitable for conventional agriculture and mediocre waters. The development of cash crop halophytes and the breeding of salt resistant crop varieties will require a clear understanding of the complex mechanisms of salt stress tolerance, which we are still lacking despite intensive research during the last decade (see review KOYROAND HUCHZERMEYER 2007 cited in Kumar and Sopory 2007).Recombinant proteins: It has been estimated that 1 g of recombinant antibody could be produced in leaves of a plant crop for only about US$100 while the current prices for monoclonal antibodies range from US$2000 to US$5000 per gram. Indeed the cost of producing 1 kg of recombinant protein from most major field crops is estimated to be 10 to 50 times lower than the cost of producing the same amount by E. coli fermentation. Whole plants also have an advantage when tissues such as a fruit, tuber, etc. an be used to express the protein of interest (James and Lee 2001), and an area of undisputed adva ntage occurs when the oral delivery of pharmaceuticals, as well as feed and food enzymes, is possible. However, there are also some evident obstacles that arise when a whole plant is used for large-scale protein production( see review SODERQUIST and LEE 2007). Cell-free systems have proved to have high utility at the genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic levels and to form a vital component of many aspects of recombinant gene expression, and of both structural and functional proteomics..Compared with DNA microarrays, protein bio-chips provide more challenges and have yet to be perfected due to the complexity and inherent difficulties with protein immobilization. Novel cell free translation system is unique discovery: A novel cell-free translation system is described in which template-mRNA molecules were captured onto solid surfaces to simultaneously synthesize and immobilize proteins in a more native-state form. This technology comprises a novel solid-phase approach to cell-free tra nslation and RNA–protein fusion techniques.A newly constructed biotinylated linker-DNA which enables puromycin-assisted RNA–protein fusion is ligated to the 3? ends of the mRNA molecules to attach the mRNA-template on a streptavidin-coated surface and further to enable the subsequent reactions of translation and RNA–protein fusion on surface. The protein products are therefore directly immobilized onto solid surfaces and furthermore were discovered to adopt a more native state with proper protein folding and superior biological activity compared with conventional liquid-phase approaches.We further validate this approach via the production of immobilized green fluorescent protein (GFP) on microbeads and by the production and assay of aldehyde reductase (ALR) enzyme with 4-fold or more activity. The approach developed in this study may enable to embrace the concept of the transformation of ‘RNA chip-to-protein chip’ using a solid-phase cell-free trans lation system and thus to the development of high-throughput microarray platform in the field of functional genomics and in vitro evolution (Biyani et al. 2006). Plant tissue culture: Another area of biotechnology is micropropagation of plants.The aim of this technique is a fast production of a great number of genetically identical plants from a highly valuable mother plant or e. g. monosexual male and female plants. These plants can be either directly sold on the market for planting, used for breeding purposes, for genetechnology or the technique is used as a method for basic science studies. Using petiole explants from transgenic plants containing the auxin responsive MAS promoter linked to the GUS reporter gene (Fig. 15, 16) the distribution of auxin within the cultured petiole could be followed during the induction phase of somatic embryogenesis (Neumann 2000 and Neumann 2006).Interestingly, the cells forming the glandular canal contain high concentrations of auxins as shown by using transgenic plants containing the auxin sensitive MAS-promoter coupled to the GUS-gene ( Fig see below ), whatever the significance. Rhizogenic centers develop near vascular bundles prior to those embryogenic centers. Fig. 2 Plasmid pPCV812 with the MAS promoter and the GUS reporter gene, hyg=Hygromycin resistance, Ap/Cb=Ampicillin/Carbenicillin resistance (courtesy of Dr. Z. Koncz, Max-Planck- Institut Cologne, Germany, for providing the plasmid) Genetic factors play a central role to induce somatic embryos, i. . to provide the competence of the species for the process. Here, great variation can be found even within a genera such as Daucus. Eight of twelve Daucus species cultured in identical conditions produced somatic embryos (D. halophilus, D. capillifolius, D. commutatus, D. azoricus, D. gadacei, D. maritimus, D. maximus, D. carota ), whereas four species (D. montevidensis, D. pussillus, D. muricatus, D. glochidiatus) were not competent to do so. Under identical culture co nditions, only 8 out of 12 species and subspecies of the genus Daucus proved capable of somatic embryogenesis.Random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis indicated a polymorphism between the genomes of individual species that were capable of embryogenesis and those that were not. Two specific bands (1. 1 kbp, 0. 68 kbp) were detected only inthe genomes of individuals with the capacity for embryogenesis. These were cloned and sequenced, and the homology of the nucleotide sequences of the various species was detected: this ranged from 74% to 92% for the larger sequence and from 92% to 97% for the smaller one. These DNA sequences would appear to be useful as a marker of the capacity for somatic embryogenesis in the genus Daucus (Imani et al. 001) The sequences obtained in this study have been registered with the European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL). The access numbers for the sequences are: AJ278039 DCA78039; AJ278040 DCA78040; AJ278041 CA78041; AJ278042 DCA78042; AJ278176 DCA278176; AJ278177 DCA278177; AJ278178 DCA278178; AJ278179 DCA278179. No open reading frames were detected. We performed later additional studies with other Daucus species (D. capillifolius; D. carota ssp. Azoricus and gadecaei) as shown in Table 1 to determine the use-fulness of these RAPD products as markers for identifying the ability of Daucus species to generate somatic embryos (Fig. b). There was a 100% correlation between the embryogenic potential of the species (Table 1) and the occurrence of the 1. 1-kbp and 0. 68-kbp band (Imani et al. 2001). Micropropagation Technique in Enhancing the Productivity of Crops have been taken up at large scale at TERI ( see review Saxena, 2007 see Kumar and Shekhawat 2007) Some of the activities undertaken at MTP include: †¢ Large-scale production of superior quality planting material of various economically important plant species using tissue culture technology †¢ Mass multiplication of those species which are difficult to regenerate by co nventional methods f propagation or where conventional methods of propagation are inadequate to meet the demand of planting material †¢ Development of new micropropagation protocols and refining of others so as to make them suitable for large-scale production of plants †¢ Helping the entrepreneurs/industry through technology transfer, mother cultures and training of staff †¢ Assisting clients in setting-up their own tissue culture labs †¢ Creating awareness Till date over 15 million plants of forest species, cash crops, medicinal and aromatic plants, and ornamentals (foliage and flowering) have been dispatched to various state forest and horticulture epartments, private entrepreneurs, nurseries, farmers etc. for field demonstrations and routine plantations. In addition, MTP is in possession of micropropagation protocols for over 90 economically important plant species. Field demonstration plots of tissue cultured plants have been laid at different locations to ev aluate and compare their growth performances with conventional plants. Besides transfer of technologies to industry for commercialization, MTP has been instrumental in capacity building and creating awareness about tissue culture technology through seminars/ workshops/training programmes, exhibitions, etc. Dhawan and Saxena 2004; Saxena and Dhawan, 2004). Secondary metabolites: Since the establishment of plant tissue culture techniques in 1960’s, significant contributions have been made to the development of biochemical studies on secondary metabolism such as structural elucidation, biosynthesis, enzymology, metabolic regulation system, intracellular distribution of metabolites and relevant enzymes, metabolite transportation, molecular biology and many others . However, one of the greatest difficulties and challenges in the application of plant tissue culture to metabolism research has been that unorganized callus tissues have often failed to ccumulate metabolites usually det ected in the mother plant. In some cases, metabolic potential was recovered through the development of a production medium, change in culture conditions or selecting cell strains of high productivity (Fujita and Tabata, 1987). It is commonly observed that recalcitrant callus tissues begin to synthesize secondary metabolites after organ – such as shoots and roots – differentiation . Although somatic embryogenesis occurs in cultured cells of numerous plant species, it has rarely been applied to secondary metabolite production. Recently secondary metabolite production by somatic embryo ultures and especially by those of Corydalis species has been reviewed by HIRAOKA and Bhatt, 2007) . References: Anita Kumari and Ashwani Kumar (2005) SOME POTENTIAL BIOFUEL PLANTS FOR SEMI-ARID AND ARID REGIONS AND IMPROVING THEIR GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY In : CARRASCO J. E. , L. SJUNNESSON, P. HELM, A. GRASSI (eds) BIOMASS FOR ENERGY, INDUSTRY AND CLIMATE PROTECTION. pp 279-281. Anita Kuma ri, Ashwani Kumar, V. R. Kumar (2005) PRODUCTIVTY OF CALOTROPIS PROCERA IN SEMI-ARID REGIONS OF RAJASTHAN AND ITS USE AS RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY In : CARRASCO J. E. , L. SJUNNESSON, P. HELM, A.GRASSI (eds) BIOMASS FOR ENERGY, INDUSTRY AND CLIMATE PROTECTION. pp 276-278 Dhawan V and Saxena S (2005) Production of superior quality disease-free planting material. In: Chadha KL, Ahloowalia Imani, J. , (1999): In situ- Nachweis der Auxinverteilung in kultivierten Petiolenexplantaten von transgenen Pflanzen wahrend der Induktion der somatischen Embryogenese bei Daucus carota L. Diss. Justus Liebig Universitat, Gie? en, Germany J. Imani †¢ L. Tran Thi †¢ G. Langen,B. Arnholdt-Schmitt †¢ S. Roy †¢ C. Lein †¢ A. Kumar K. -H. Neumann (2001) Somatic embryogenesis and DNA organization of genomes from selected Daucus species.Plant Cell Rep 20:537–541 Prasad, BS KV and Singh SK (Eds. ) Crop Improvement and Production Technology of Horticultural Crops Proceedings of First Indian Horticulture Congress – 2004. pp 174-184. Kumar A. (2004) Calotropis Procera: a Potential Plant for Hydrocarbons from Semi-Arid and Arid Regions In : Van Swaaij, Fjallstrom, Helm and Grassi (eds):. Biomass for energy, industry, and climate protection. Proceedings of the Second World Conference ETA-Florence, Rome Italy WIP-Munich , Germany pp 173. Kumar, A. and Sudhir Sopory ( eds) ( 2007) Recent advances in plant biotechnology.IK International New Delhi Kumar A and N S Shekhawat ( eds) (2007) Plant tissue culture, Molecular markers and their role in agriculture production. IK International. New Delhi Neumann, K. -H. (1995): Pflanzliche Zell- und Gewebekulturen. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart,304 pages Neumann KH (2000) Some studies on somatic embryogenesis, a tool in plant biotechnology. http://bibd. uni-giessen. de/ghtm/ 2000/uni/p000004. htm Neumann, K. -H. (2006): Some studies on somatic embryogenesis: a tool in plant biotechnology. In: Kumar and Roy (eds) Plant b iotechnology and its applications in tissue culture.I. K. International, New Delhi . pp 1-14. Shekhawat V. P. S. and A. Kumar 2006 Somaclonal variants for salt tolerance and in vitro propagation of peanut. In: (Eds. ) A. Kumar, S. Roy and S. K. Sopory. Plant Biotechnology;its Application in Tissue Culture. I. K. International New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore. pp. 177-196 Shekhawat, V. P. S. , Kumar, A. , and K. H. Neumann. 2005. Bio-reclamation of secondary salinized soils using halophytes. Biosaline Agriculture ; Salinity tolerance in Plants. (Eds. ) M. Ozturk, Y. Waisal, M. A. Khan and G. Gork, Birkhauser Verlag , Switzerland. p 145-152. Shekhawat, V. P. S. , Kumar, A. , and K. H. Neumann. 2006. Effect of NaCl salinity on growth and ion accumulation in some chenopodiaceous halophytes. Communication in Soil Science and Plant analysis 13-14 (37), 1933 – 1946 Manish Biyani, Yuzuru Husimi, and Naoto Nemoto (2006) Solid-phase translation and RNA–protein fusion: a novel approa ch for folding quality control and direct immobilization of proteins using anchored mRNA Nucleic Acids Res. 2006 November; 34:140-. Saxena, S and Dhawan V (2004) Changing Scenarios in Indian Horticulture In : PS Srivastava, A Narula and SSrivastava (Eds. ) Plant Biotechnology and Molecular Markers. Anamaya Publishers, New Delhi. pp. 261-277. Related Articles on Science 2. 0 Applications of biotechnology in plant tissue culture Biotechnology and genomic tools Biofuels include Medicinal plant cultivation. Recent advances in plant biotechnology: Applications in Agriculture. Know Science And Want To Write? Register Now To Get Your Own Column! What's Happening Top Articles New Comments Events 1. 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